This study was the last part of a four-part dissertation that investigated the early socialization patterns of eight female student leaders in middle and late adolescence from sectarian and non-sectarian schools in Metro Manila, Philippines. Guided by the Developmental Assets Framework, results show themes related to gender stereotypes, leadership purpose, and role models, in addition to themes related to perceived disadvantages and advantages of female leaders. Younger participants responses reflect a stronger dependence on others, while older participants exhibit a more stable and deeper appreciation of their leadership role, which could be linked to identity achievement. Although all participants identified female role models, more non-sectarian participants identified male role models (brother, father, and uncle) compared to sectarian participants. Overall, one of the most important findings of this study involves participants critical appraisal of negative gender stereotypes of female leadership. In addition, leadership experiences and socialization show that Generation Z participants more sustained exposure to positive and more diverse role models from social media may largely explain their critical appraisal of gender stereotypes.
Because in almost all cultures, males are preferred as leaders over females, looking at how young girls navi-gated gendered social expectations and even limiting beliefs is necessary for understanding the onset and development of leadership for their age group. Work-ing on the assumption that prior life events and exp-eriences may trigger leadership development (Arvey et al., 2007), it is essential to note which key events and experiences, from the participants perceptions, are crucial to their involvement and growing interest in leadership. Leadership is a stereotypically male role in almost all societies worldwide and there is a wide gap in the representation of women leaders in many institu-tions (Haber-Curran & Sulpizio, 2017). This gender gap in leadership among adolescent females could be traced to the gender gap in political ambition, which could be associated with young womens less exposure to political information than young men. Young wo-men receive less encouragement to consider politics as a future career path and consider themselves less quali-fied to run for office (Islam and Haque, 2022).
Their limited exposure to playing organized sports may also impact how they care about being compe-titive or winning compared to young men (Lawless & Fox, 2013). Women leaders are almost always a mino-rity, possibly partly due to leadership stereotypes and biases by gender that hinder womens leadership exp-eriences and advancement (Catalyst, 2007; Haber-Curran & Sulpizio, 2017). Other factors could explain leadership under representation among women: same-gender bias in rating leaders (Martell & DeSmet, 2001), less positive attitude towards female leaders if the perception of the incongruity between female gen-der role and leadership roles are emphasized (Eagly & Karau, 2002) or stereotype threat (Davis et al., 2005) which may decrease womens leadership self-concept and may even trigger upward threat (Rudman & Phelan, 2010) race (Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, 2010) and even awareness of existing affirmative action policy (Islam & Zilenovsky, 2011). Meanwhile, there has been a steady growth of studies focusing on posi-tive youth development, probably due to the growing need to look at adolescents from a more strength-based perspective rather than the usual problem-based pers-pective. Recent studies show that adolescence is cri-tical for leadership emergence and development (Tackett et al., 2022). Other studies also acknowledge how leadership characteristics of young people differ accor-ding to gender, in addition to other factors (Khan, 2022; Dagyar et al., 2022).
Hence, this research investigated essential personal experiences that influenced the leadership path of eight adolescent female leaders. Participants were asked to share specific experiences as student leaders, what they thought about female leader stereotypes and disadvan-tages, and female leader advantages, if there were any. Participants were also asked about their role models for leadership. Moreover, this study is based on the Developmental Assets framework developed by Peter Benson and his colleagues at the Search Institute to emphasize the necessary concepts related to youth development and their contexts (Benson et al., 2011).
The Search Institute has identified 40 assets that young people need to have better outcomes in life. Strengths or supports that focus on relationships and ties with families, schools, and communities are called external assets. Major categories include support, empower-ment, boundaries, expectations, and constructive use of time. Specifically, this study shows which social assets or strengths are helpful for the female adolescents leadership path. This study could help inform how, despite the increased possibility of constraints and limitations during adolescence, some girls become leaders at a young age.
This study, the last part of a four-part dissertation work, investigated the early socialization patterns of eight female student leaders, four in middle adole-scence and four in late adolescence, using the multiple case study approach. This multiple case study method utilized qualitative interviews to account for partici-pants leadership ideas and constructs. Participants an-swers to specific questions on socialization and up-bringing were analyzed separately.
Participants
Participants were from private, coed junior and senior high schools in Metro Manila, Philippines. Half were from sectarian schools, and half were from non-secta-rian schools. All participants were elected leaders of their school organizations for at least one year. Their school council advisers selected them. Their ages ran-ged from 12-16 (middle adolescents) to 16-18 (late adolescents). Each participant was assigned a code name. At the time of the interviews, two middle adole-scent participants were 12 years old, and the other two were 13 years old. Three late adolescent participants were 17 years old, and one was 18 years old. Two participants have five years of leadership experience, one with six years of leadership experience, four with eight years of leadership experience, and one with ten years of leadership experience. Regarding the school setting, four participants were from sectarian schools, and four were from non-sectarian schools. (Table 1 below for the demographic profile of case study participants in which each column identifies their code name, age, length of leader-ship experience, & school type). There were three school settings for this study. The first school setting was a sectarian school and a private coed institution offering instruction for pre-school, kindergarten, elementary, and high school levels. The second school setting was a private, non-sectarian, coed educational institution that provides education at senior high school, college, and post-gra-duate levels. The third school setting was a private, non-sectarian, coed, non-stock educational institution providing complete education services from preschool to post-graduate. The decision to differentiate between sectarian and non-sectarian schools was partly to in-vestigate the possible differences in school climate and support systems. The interview guide and objectives of the study were initially presented to school officials, together with the data-gathering procedure and inclu-sion criteria for participants.
Table 1: Demographic profile of case study participants.
The school principals then tapped the school student council advisers to select participants. The student council advisers identified and invited qualified parti-cipants to conduct the study upon approval. During the initial meeting, the research objectives, informed con-sent, and informed assent forms were all presented and explained to participants. They were also briefed about the voluntary nature of their participation and about their right to discontinue should they feel dis-comfort or unease. They were also informed about the confi-dential nature of the interview. The first interview session with the case study participants was scheduled upon the return of the signed Informed Consent form from their parents. Participants were then asked to sign the Informed Assent form. The first interview lasted for about 40- 60 minutes. The second interview was scheduled based on the availability of the student participants, which lasted approximately 40-60 minu-tes. One interview session was also conducted with each of the key informants. These interviews lasted for about 20-40 minutes. All the interviews took place inside the school campuses and were all recorded with the participants permission. The interview guide was constructed based on the research questions, theore-tical considerations, literature review, and result of the pilot test. Three adolescent student leaders were selec-ted as participants for the pilot test.
Data Analysis
For data familiarization, each transcribed interview was organized and read several times. Preliminary ideas and concepts were identified and encoded from each transcribed interview, with specific attention to ideas and concepts relevant to the research questions. Member-checking was conducted after each initial interview and data familiarization. Consultations and negotiations of meanings and main ideas were conduc-ted during the second interview session with partici-pants. Once member-checking was complete, two advanced Ph.D. students in Developmental Psychology were enlisted as interraters to help the researcher identify themes or sub-themes. Matrices with partici-pants responses were given to the interraters with a copy of the Developmental Assets Framework from the Search Institute as a guide. Secondary themes were then identified after the initial classification of respon-ses. Reliability and validity were ensured by moving back and forth reflexively from the themes to the preliminary ideas and concepts and even back to the transcribed interviews whenever necessary. Possible secondary themes were reviewed thoroughly against the data and the research questions to determine whe-ther or not the themes presented a meaningful and cohesive account of the data. Codes from the research-her and interraters were compared for similarities and differences. The researcher and the interraters debated their codes until a certain degree of confidence was reached. Finally, thoughtful interpretation of themes through an integrative discussion was made possible through thick descriptions with an audit trail to ensure the trustworthiness of the analysis. The interpretation was also integrated into or against existing literature on female adolescent leadership and the layers of influ-ences in the participants lives from social to cultural or political institutions.
Ethical Considerations
The dissertation proposal defense panel examined the data-gathering procedure and interview guide ques-tions before the actual data-gathering phase. During the data-gathering stage, permission to conduct rese-arch was submitted to the respective high school prin-cipals. The interview guide questions were examined by their school officials and school psychologist. Finally, the complete research proposal manuscript underwent rigorous Ethics Board approval, with pro-tocol no. 2019-33.
This section presents the case study findings in con-nection to the specific research question about the early socialization experiences of participants. The-matic analysis and interrater reliability were employed to identify themes from the result of participant inter-views.
Female Leader Stereotypes: Weak and Less Com-petent
Although Hera shared that she did not personally agree with women leader stereotypes, she learned that other people think of women leaders as weak, moody, and therefore incapable of being good leaders. Lisa shared a similar awareness of gender stereotypes that portray women as weak and incapable of doing things men can do. She was also aware that many people underesti-mate the capabilities of female leaders. They think men make better leaders because they are more robust and have more leadership experiences. Lisa shared that she feels disappointed over negative female leader stereotypes. She emphasized her firm belief in gender equality and argued that women are just as capable as men. She also asserted that what matters is that women know their capability to lead. Shaina had a similar idea and shared that some people believe women to be incapable of leadership. However, Shaina herself beli-eves that men and women are equal. She also argued that equality must go both ways because "sometimes men are also belittled by women. Nene thought that many people believed that female leaders were only interested in proving that they were not weak and mens equals. Nene expressed her disagreement with this stereotype. Similarly, Raiza shared that many people think women leaders are just showing off how good they are to avoid gender discrimination. How-ever, Raiza argued that being a leader is not about gender. It is all about ones dedication to the job. She further asserted that female leaders are capable of being motivated to perform or deliver what is expected of them as leaders. Moreover, according to Agape, many people do not think females deserve leadership positions, especially in politics, because the role does not fit women. However, she argued that we are all unique. She asserted that being a leader is not about gender but about personality and the ability to unite people toward one advocacy or purpose. Like the other participants, Dominic was aware that many people be-lieve that female leaders are weak mainly due to patriarchy. Carla expressed a similar point when she said that people talk about how certain types of women are perceived as less competent leaders, "When a woman is sweet and kind, she is more likable yet perceived as less competent."
Female Leader Weaknesses or Disadvantages: In-validated and Misinterpreted
Aside from gender stereotypes in leadership, many participants expressed their awareness of some female leadership disadvantages. Many were concerned about the emotional side of female leaders and how they get overlooked or invalidated. In Nenes observation, female leaders suffer from getting invalidated by others. Their opinions are usually taken for granted or misinter-preted. Nene attributed this mainly to culture and gender bias, even in cases where females expressed themselves clearly. Heras observation was similar.
She observed that female leaders are frequently mis-interpreted, particularly when displaying their emo-tions. In contrast, men could quickly get away with showing their emotions. Other people will dismiss mens emotional displays as playfulness or mere jokes. Hera thought that women are treated differently in this context:
When you are angry or a little mad, they mis-interpret that as something else, that that is your intention...it seems that there is bias... They choose not to follow your lead because you are angry or there is something else.
Like Nenes concern, Dominic shared that female leaders are sometimes taken for granted. In her obser-vation, female leaders may not always be perceived as authoritative by other students because of their percep-tion that boys are more assertive than girls and because of leadership gender stereotypes. On another note, Carla observed how some females like to gossip and dwell on issues more than necessary:
Some will provoke you and bring out your ugly side. And then, when you become mad at them, they act like they are the victims. Isnt it that some women like to gossip? The issue has been solved, yet they still like to discuss it.
Carla added, "With other girls, sometimes they under-estimate the abilities of other girls. It is like they com-pete with each other." Moreover, Carla shared that female leaders like her receive unconstructive criti-cisms and online bashing, "Especially girls, they [receive] strong criticism from others like they have so many bashers." Girl culture for Carla can be something like ".[when] there was one thing that did not please them, they will find a way so that you will have to get angry at yourself."
On another point, Shaina noted that females, in general, get more easily hurt and affected than males. Female leaders, in particular, are more sen-sitive or easily hurt by other peoples judgments. Similar to Shainas observations, Lisa thought that women and girls could get very sensitive and tend to overthink. Agape noted that female leaders are easily affected by other peoples words or judg-ments. She thought, "Be-cause female leaders are not that strong mentally or physically, that is why they easily get affected when they hear people talk about them in a certain way."
Meanwhile, Raiza thought that one of the weaknesses of female leaders is that they are emotionally sensitive and that such behavior could sometimes get in the way of effective leadership. However, she also thought being emotional has its advantages, "…female leaders are more independent in their emotions. Like they always have empathy… that is why it is easier for them to understand the feelings of others."
Female Leader Strengths or Advantages: Inter-personal Skills and Sense of Responsibility
Carla argued that women are good listeners, as well as good at encouraging and convincing people. Thus, women make excellent and loyal leaders:
We cannot please everyone; therefore, we need to respect their opinions because it is their opinion. Moreover, we women should prove them wrong …So by doing our best, we can prove to them that [we are] just equal. Women can do what men can do as leaders. It is not about gender. It is how well they fulfill their responsibilities as leaders. Men and women have their strengths and weaknesses.
Carla also thought that women leaders have good communication and social skills and different ways of leading and relating with others. In Shainas opinion, female leaders have unique strengths, "we are patient when it comes to waiting for things, and also we are more encouraging of others." Moreover, Hera empha-sized that females, in general, are more sociable. When asked to compare women leaders with male leaders, Hera emphasized a female leaders ability to fight for their opinions without hurting others. In comparison, men often speak without considering how their words might affect others. Hera added that women leaders know how to relate well with others and are also cheer-ful. More so, she argued that there are different ways of leading and that females approach leadership differ-ently from men. Instead of stereotyping female leaders, Hera argued that people should believe that females can also make good leaders just like males. Further-more, Dominic emphasized female leaders interper-sonal skills as their strength, "...they know how to listen. When it comes to ...advocacies, they are unbia-sed. Because they understand the need to fight for things." Similarly, Nene believed that female leaders are more considerate than their male counterparts. She asserted that females lead with a heart. They carefully consider people who will get affected by their leader-ship decisions. These qualities are essential because they negate peoples perception that female leaders are weak. From Nenes observations, female leaders are just as capable of leadership and fighting for their principles. For Agape, being sensitive as a leader is an advantage since it enables them to anticipate other peoples needs. She believes gender stereotypes should be rejected and the persons leadership personality matters. Another advantage of female leaders, accor-ding to Lisa, is that they have a strong sense of respon-sibility, something that they have developed while managing their households. Meanwhile, Raiza thought that women and girl leaders are more aggressive in decision-making because they always come prepared with plans, "We think 60 million times before we fina-lize things." Furthermore, because women are emo-tional, they know how to consider others feelings more thoughtfully, "Like they always have empathy ...they can more easily understand what others feel."
Development of Leadership Purpose
Among younger participants, their development of leadership purpose revolved around how they con-nected with others, persevered and improved their leadership skills. For instance, part of Carlas exp-erience as a student leader involves being consistent and treating others fairly. She draws inspiration and motivation from her upbringing, where she learned to be disciplined. In some of her negative experiences, she also gained insight into the importance of con-sideration and fairness. She learned to listen better to different sides because she knows the feeling of being ignored, as though one is voiceless or without rights.
Regarding leadership principles, Shaina shared that she persevered, finished tasks on time, and surpassed expectations.
Meanwhile, Heras somewhat tentative sense of purpose could be gleaned from her thinking that she is more of a guide than a leader "...because as a leader it is important that you should be the one guiding them and when they do not show up, you are still their leader, and so you must act." In Lisas experience, she initially doubted her leadership abilities: "It hurts because, of course, when we are working on a task, I sometimes wonder if I am enough or if I can finish the work on time. That is why it seems that I get distrac-ted." However, she tried to make the most out of it by forgiving, forgetting, and using the negative experi-ences to change her perspective. As for Hera, she realized that she wanted to fight for others rights. She likes expressing her opinions when she knows that she is right, "I would like to defend the rights of others. I do not like others rights getting violated, and I want to defend my opinions, the ones I know are right... that is what I like about being a leader." She plans to inspire young women to become leaders by advocating for equality between males and females, "Being female is not a disadvantage in being a leader because we are all equal and we are also human." She said that women need to express their opinions, mainly because, at times, this is what makes things right or good. She added that women should not be afraid to express their opinions since we are all equal and have different opinions. Among older participants, leadership pur-pose emerged from their reflections regarding criti-cisms from others, good examples from role models, personal advocacies, and the desire to help others. For instance, Nene shared that initially, negative experi-ences like receiving criticism from classmates affected her self-confidence as a leader. Eventually, she learned to focus only on their positive feedback and reminded herself that her leadership has a purpose. She kept in mind that the students who voted for her trusted her and that this trust should not go to waste. Like her female role models, Nene shared that she strives to be decisive and principled, "But I have to keep in mind what is right, and if I know that I am on the right side, I should not be afraid, and instead, I should be con-fident of the choices that I will make."
Dominics sense of purpose as a student leader is rooted in her advocacy regarding the importance of education:
The government is in such a big mess these days, and I want to educate people, students, and child-ren to be aware of what is going on and that they should be able to express what they want to say...I want them to be aware of what is happening in the country. I want them to be informed about the laws.
However, Dominic also admitted that there were times when she grew tired of her duties as president of their organization. In such moments, she would usually remind herself that that is what she wanted - to serve others and get recognized for it. Dominic also shared that she is happy that younger schoolmates recognize her and her organizations contributions to the school. She perseveres in her work because she is genuinely happy with her role. She derives satisfaction from working hard for her school and from having a sense that others see her as their leader. Agape also shared her realizations about her leadership purpose and style. She said she is almost always aware of her current abilities and limitations. She also thought that she needed to learn about what leaders do to endure dealing with pressure, making personal sacrifices, and learning how to manage time efficiently. Agape beli-eved that she had yet to reach this level of leadership maturity. She thought she needed to give up her fear of being perceived as an outcast. She also needs to learn better communication skills, "I need to learn how to be approachable to others, and also public speaking because I am not that expressive... that is how I got started as a leader in school activities." Finally, she shared that her leadership goal is to help others:
I also want to know what I can do and how I can help others. If I can uplift myself and take myself out of my comfort zone, I would also like to uplift others and show them things they can still accomplish.
Leadership Role Models
Females in Elected Government Positions
Carla shared that as a student leader for some time, she looks up to role models for additional guidance. One of her role models is a female politician whom she described as hardworking, imaginative, responsible, and always thinking about ways to improve the city.
Shaina described her role model, a female politi-cian, as kind and genuinely concerned for her fellow "kapwa." Shaina admitted, "Sometimes I try to copy her qualities, kindness, and love for her fellow. I tell myself I should be like that and not become worse."
Lisa considered another female politician as her role model mainly because of her exceptional qualities as a public speaker and her many achievements. Lisa learned a lot about the late senator through social media. Lisa said she tries to do well in public speaking, just like her role model. At the time of the interviews, she shared that she was active as a debater in her school. Nene also looked up to another female senator for similar reasons - being assertive and a fighter. She shared,
"With the way she speaks, when she wants something, she really wants it and will do it, fight for it regardless of what happens or other peoples criticisms." Based on what she saw in her role model, Nene argued that women leaders could keep up with their male counterparts because they were just as capable. Raiza also shared her admir-ation for the same female senator. Raiza noted that her role model was remarkable and admirable for fighting for what she believed in and that "She was firm. In every decision that she makes, she is straight to the point. She was brilliant and infor-mative...and was not afraid to tell the truth about what was happening to the government. She was also very transparent to everyone." Like her role model, Raiza said that she strives to be assertive, "I like her characteristics of being vocal like I am also vocal to my community."
Females in Appointed Government Positions
Agape identified a female environment secretary as her leadership role model. Agape thought this leaders life was admirable because she left her comfortable life to be a yoga missionary in India, where she experienced hardships while helping children. She was a role model for her strength and robust qualities. Agape also emp-hasized the significance of the environment secretarys anti-mining advocacy. Nene shared the same admira-tion for the female environment secretary. Nene con-sidered her a female leader role model because she was upfront, decisive, assertive, and committed to protect-ting the environment, "it seems inspiring to have leaders who still care about the environment." Like her role model, Nene shared that she has been trying to be a good person. She is learning to fight for her prin-ciples and find ways to fulfill her duties as a student leader.
Female Fiction Characters
Other female leader role models were derived from movies. For instance, Carla looked up to Amber from Detective Files and described her as "… fierce, she may look strong outside and tough, but if you know her, she just has a good [idea] to improve her group..." In addition, Carla also identified Wonderwoman from Warner Brothers Hollywood blockbuster movie as another female role model. Carla believed that "She is always there to help others and she could show that even though she is female, she can fight like a male like an equal...that there are things that men can do and that she can do as well." Nene identified another fic-tional role model- the character of Black Widow from the movie Avengers of Marvel Studios. According to Nene, Black Widow is unique because she brings her team back together again. She was the kind who did not easily give up on others. Nene learned from Black Widow that nothing is impossible and that there is always a way to fulfill ones goals.
Female Relatives
Three case study participants look up to their grand-mothers and mothers as female leader role models for leadership. Carla looks up to her businesswoman mother as a leader and role model. She described her mother as someone who does not give up easily. She is open-minded and is always looking for things to improve. Similarly, Heras role models for leaders are her mother and grandmother. She explicitly views her mother as a leader role model because of the guidance she provides to her children. Hera also considers her grandmother a leadership role model because she has guided Hera to prepare more responsibly for the future. Raiza also identified her grandmother as her leader and role model in her family. Raiza observed that her gran-dmothers good examples were adopted by her parents.
Her grandmother knows how to assign responsibilities, which, Raiza believed, instilled discipline, "… she was a good example as a leader because my parents also took after her, which is if they take care of you, you also adopt those qualities." Raiza was also particular about her grandmothers leadership style, "Assigning their responsibilities because when she speaks about tasks, it is a must."
Female Pop Stars
Lisa said she looks up to K-pop stars as role models mainly for their work ethic. Female leaders of K-pop groups act like mothers to their teams and are known to be very responsible and supportive.
Female Schoolmate
Nene recalled an older female schoolmate as one of her very first female role models. Nene was particu-larly impressed by her schoolmates public speaking skills. This female student leader eventually noticed her and invited her to join their schools political party. Nene thought that that persons influence left a lasting mark on her and had been a source of inspiration for her.
Confident Females
Hera was not specific about her female role models. Instead, she was more particular about confidence as an admirable female role model quality. She was inter-ested in women who are confident and capable of influencing people to do what is right. Hera added that whenever possible, she tries to learn from their exam-ple. Moreover, she admires female leaders who have courage, expresses their opinions, and stand up to men. However, she was also careful in understanding how to make their qualities fit her circumstances.
Male Leader
Shainas first role model for leadership was a former male senator of the country. She emphasized that she found him worth emulating for his advocacy on moral governance. Moreover, Shaina also considers her fat-her a role model for good leadership, "Maybe because he is a teacher of politics, that is why he knows how to do it, how he teaches others to be loyal and not lack loyalty about different matters." In addition to female politicians and female fictional characters, Nene also shared that she is mainly inspired by the example of her uncle, who, at the time of the interview, was currently a local politician in the city of Makati:
He does not give up easily. Because he knows that he is capable of leading, he knows how to get the support and trust of people...I know him as a res-ponsible person, who is why he has that position today, and then I see that he deserves it and is good at leadership.
Similarly, Agape said she also looks up to her father as a leader and role model. She described her father as someone capable of multiple roles as father, engineer, and pastor all at the same time. Furthermore, Dominic shared that her initial interest in student leadership was inspired by her older brother, who had been a very active student leader.
Her brother was her first leader-ship role model. She admitted that she idolized her older brother and obser-ved his leadership example closely. However, she insisted that although her brother was an inspiration, eventually becoming a student leader herself was initi-ated and has grown into a personal passion.
According to the Developmental Assets Framework, positive youth development is more likely when in-dividual strengths or assets are aligned with a com-munitys “external” or ecological assets, which can be manifested in terms of (1) support; (2) empowerment; (3) boundaries and expectations; and (4) constructive use of time (Benson et al., 2011; Lerner et al., 2012, pp. 368-369). Themes from participants responses, specifically those related to female leader stereotypes, weaknesses and disadvantages, and strengths and ad-vantages, could be associated with external support assets. Participants critical appraisal of gender leader-ship stereotypes and their understanding of female leader strengths and weaknesses were made possible by the support they received from positive family com-munication, other adult relationships, and caring school climates. All participants were able to recognize and criticize limited female stereotypes that are related to leadership. Case study participants were aware that many perceived female leaders as weak, less compe-tent, and hypersensitive or expressive. However, al-though stereotype threat may deter some women from leadership roles (Hoyt & Murphy, 2016), all case study participants could critically examine such gender ster-eotypes. Instead of getting affected by stereotypical societal thinking, participants were able to reframe the harmful gender stereotypes related to female leader-ship by discussing their representations of female leaders. Many had the insight to consider that women leaders are thoughtful, responsible, strategic, and poss-ess strong interpersonal skills. Somehow this demon-strates that although exposure to stereotype threat could influence some women to favor non-threatening subordinate roles over leadership roles, it is essential to know how to create identity-safe environ-ments that could lessen vulnerability to stereotype threat (Davies et al., 2005). It also matters to emphasize how partici-pants were supported in various ways so that they were able to generate the cognitive resources that helped them reframe negative female leader stereotypes. For instance, one may take note of how agents of gender socialization like family, friends, peers, school, church, and even social media provided participants support in understanding and examining gender stereotypes. Moreover, participants critical appraisal of gender stereotypes and overall display of cultural competence could be interpreted as partly a reflection of moral development. With the positive and liberating influ-ence of role models, participants interrogation of dis-criminatory gender stereotypes may be, in effect, an interrogation of conventional rules of morality. Gil-ligan, (1982) once posited that the onset of adole-scence is associated with the loss of "voice" in girls attempting to conform to cultural stereotypes of femin-ine behavior. Such contention is not reflected in this study. None of the participants expressed attempts to conform to negative gender leadership stereotypes that they identified in their responses. Instead, they rejected such negative gender stereotypes and resisted the pre-ssure to conform. Along with rejecting or questioning female leader stereotypes, all participants could dis-cuss their understanding of what appear to be female leader strengths or advantages. Their under-standing is essential because it connects with their relative self-efficacy or subjective well-being (Weiss et al., 2012). Stereotype threats did not psychologically harm the case study participants, unlike many female adult leaders who find stereotype threats as severe challen-ges to self-efficacy (Hoyt & Murphy, 2016). Partici-pants identified their positive representations of women leaders that reflect important external social assets or strengths in the form of role models and other socialization patterns. All participants shared how their role models helped shape their perceptions and attitudes toward their leadership duties. This experi-ence points to early socialization and learning the values, attitudes, and expectations of appropriate beha-veors and social roles as vital for effective social functioning. Arguably, this process is eventually res-ponsible for the accessibility of role models and other interactional experiences that become part of a deve-loping persons behavior (Assibey-Mensah, 1997). Participants identification of role models also reflects the presence of specific boundaries and expectations, another external asset in the Developmental Assets Framework. In discussing their role models for leader-ship, participants identified the qualities they admire most from their role models, as well as what they perceived to be their role models weaknesses. They also explained how they apply these observational learnings in their contexts and circumstances. Many participants shared that they try to learn from the good examples set by their role models and consider similar experiences or similar challenges. Some studies claim that exposure to nontraditional female roles may dec-rease womens leadership self-concept and trigger upward threats (Rudman & Phelan, 2010). However, the results of this current study show the positive influ-ence of role models in the leadership path of case study participants. Furthermore, similar to some studies where a role model is someone with whom girls have a deep personal connection (Buck et al., 2007), some case study participants identified their parents, grand-parents, older siblings, or other relatives as their role models. However, more role models were identified from other segments of society. Note that such role models were made visible to the participants through social media since all of them are part of Generation Z (born between the mid-to-late 1990s up to early 2010s), a demographic cohort thought to have used social media and smartphones at a very young age. Compared to older generations who grew up watching limited representations of women on mainstream TV or movies, Gen Zs intense exposure to social media paved the way for more diverse role models. It also shows more advocates of female leadership and posi-tive representations of women and girls in general. On the one hand, social media is commonly seen as responsible for popularizing unrealistic body image and beauty standards for young women. On the other hand, most of the female role models identified by case study participants were politicians, appointed leaders, or celebrities made famous by Facebook and Holly-wood blockbuster movies. In addition, “female empo-werment” campaigns were launched on various social media platforms recently, and they were made very visible by well-known figures like Malala Yousafzai and Beyonce Knowles. Previous studies show how underrepresented women leaders are in many institu-tions (Lennon, 2013; Pew Research Center, 2015; Haber-Curran & Sulpizio, 2017). Such under-repre-sentation in the political arena, corporate board-rooms, or higher education institutions could be due to leader-ship stereotypes and gender biases that discourage women from assuming leadership positions (Catalyst, 2007; Haber-Curran & Sulpizio, 2017). Mean-while, participants development of leadership purpose themes reflects two external assets: empowerment and constructive use of time. All of the participants could make sense of how some personal experiences were turning points in their growth as student leaders and how these experiences fostered and deepened their sense of purpose as student leaders. Many developed a sense of purpose that focused on goals beyond per-sonal needs, consistent with studies in youth engage-ment. This finding shows that engaging youth through meaningful activities and connections can foster moti-vation (Dawes & Larson, 2011). Moreover, their sense of purpose themes reflects responses related to truth, fairness, discipline, respect, and service, among many others. These responses, in turn, could be connected to other positive youth outcomes like the development of civic engagement (Wang & Peck, 2013) prosocial values (Van Rijsewijk et al., 2016), and social res-ponsibility values (Wray-Lake et al., 2016). Com-paring the ages of participants, older participants shared more similar socialization experiences related to a sense of purpose. Younger case study participants recalled challenges related to gaining support or co-operation from their groups and remembered how teac-hers and classmates played essential roles in their decisions to accept leadership posts. Older participants shared early experiences related to experiences of motivation, resolve, and discovery of leadership pur-pose.
These differences between younger and older partici-pants may underscore differences in cognitive and moral development, as well as differences in identity development. Younger participants responses reflect a stronger dependence on others, while older participants exhibit a more stable and mature under-standing of their leadership roles. Younger participants depen-dence on others for support or validation could be linked to conventional morality, "A person acts in ways that please or help others and are approved by them" (Thomas, M., 2005, p. 432). In comparison, older participants deeper appreciation of leadership roles could be linked to some degree of identity achi-evement, a stage that is reached after devoting con-siderable thought and after experiencing more life challenges (Papalia et al., 2001). Older participants have had the time to reflect upon their leader-ship roles and expressed more substantial commitment to the task. Also, although all participants identified female role models, more non-sectarian participants identified male role models (brother, father, and uncle) compared to sectarian participants. In sum, these results demon-strate the more expansive, nontraditional, and progre-ssive socialization of non-sectarian participants. Whe-reas sectarian schools are commonly associated with caring communities, it is possible that non-sectarian schools are into other priorities like socialization opportunities (Eccles & Roeser, 2011).
Finally, note that behavioral expectations, restrictions, and limitations directly or indirectly imposed by family and society shape adolescent girls behaviors and socio-emotional development differently, thereby limiting their physical and psychological development (Cavanagh et al., 2007). More often than not, early socialization and education of girls focus more on pre-paring them for caring or supportive roles. These roles, in turn, eventually lead to the communal, care-taking style of women in leadership but may not include "the stereotypical directive and assertive qualities of good leaders" (Eagly & Carli, 2007). Policy or leadership programs for young females may consider looking into strengths or assets. Perfectly timed interventions may be helpful specifically for their age group. Research may also examine how role models work for specific age groups or contexts. For instance, in some cases, the increasing presence of women as political candidates may inadvertently lead to more vigorous resistance to change (Brown & Diekman, 2013). Research may look into how females effectively identify with role models and what kind of early socialization at home or in safe environments could more easily facilitate such identi-fication (Campbell & Wolbrecht, 2006). In other cases, girls need deep personal connections before they can relate or identify with specific role models (Buck et al., 2007). Borrowing from Bronfenbrenners, (1979) emphasis on the universe of ecologies, the Develop-mental Assets framework emphasizes collective social responsibility in fostering positive development, com-ing from different systems like families, schools, neig-hborhoods, student organizations, and churches as socializing agents and support networks (Benson et al., 2004). Hence, leadership development among adoles-cent females should be supported by multiple networks and socialization settings. Schools and communities should have more systematic mentoring programs that target specific developmental assets or improve youths social and emotional competence (Dewit et al., 2016).
The author would like to acknowledge the partici-pation of eight student leaders and the scholarship assistance of various institutions that helped make this study possible, including the Commission on Higher Education, Far Eastern University, and the University of the Philippines.
The author declares no conflicts of interest.
Academic Editor
Dr. Antonio Russo, Professor, Dept. of Moral Philosophy, Faculty of Humanities, University of Trieste, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Italy.
Department of Psychology, Far Eastern University, Nicanor Reyes St., Sampaloc, Manila-1015, Philippines.
Ochangco ELI. (2023). Early socialization of adolescent female student leaders: gender stereotypes, leadership purpose, and role models, Asian J. Soc. Sci. Leg. Stud., 5(2), 42-54. https://doi.org/10.34104/ajssls.023.042054