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Original Article | Open Access | Can. J. Bus. Inf. Stud., 2021; 3(6), 137-153 | doi: 10.34104/cjbis.021.01370153

Globalization and Its Impact on Womens Empowerment in Bangladesh

Soma Dhar* Mail Img

Abstract

This research aims to investigate the impact of globalization on womens empowerment in Bangladesh. Like many other countries, Bangladesh also integrated with the rest of the world through globalization. Empirical studies on the impact of globalization on womens empowerment in Bangladesh circumstances are rare. Many studies to date have adjudicated to review the positive and negative effects of globalization on women. The study highlights the impact of globalization on womens empowerment in Bangladesh in three ways. Firstly, the study draws application to traverse the testimony of womens empowerment by examining the initiatives (National Women Development Policy) taken by the government to levitate the status of women in society through their participation in economic and social activities and discusses the limitations and pivotal suggestions for the policy. Secondly, the study explains the positive and negative effects of globalization on womens lives in Bangladesh. And finally, for the quantitative analysis, the study shows different scatter plots to establish the relationship between globalization and women empowerment as the KOF Index and the GGG Index, and the SIGI Index using time series data for the period of (2007-2017). 

INTRODUCTION

As a buzzword, globalization has come to dominate the world since the 1990s. Generally, it is a process of revealing world trade, development of advanced means of communication, internationalization of financial market, and more generally, increased mobility of persons, goods, assets, information, and ideas. Rosa Luxem-Burg coined this word in 1870 by giving the inter-nationalization of capital a new name. At the dawn of the 21st century, globalization practiced designating as a restricted issue. The world economies have welcomed the moving towards globalization by many as an opportunity for womens empowerment. This phenomenon has led women to play an increasingly dispensable role in international, national, and household economies. The effects of globalization will not foster if women, as new actors on the world scene, are not pivotal role players in economic, social, political, and family life. In principle, globalization also does or ought to challenge the traditional inferior status of women is contradicted by the relatives of continuing male command of major social institutions. Thus, it is obligated to review and rethink the degree to which women today have genuine biopower, economic power, cultural power, and power in making and executing political decisions. 

The empowerment of women is now a modernized global issue. Moreover, this term used for improving womens condition may connect to any disadvantaged group of society for returning them to the same level of forwarding section (Huq, 2016). In most parts of the world, we found discrimination against women in social, economic and cultural, and political aspects compared to their male counterparts. Therefore, the stress placed on womens empowerment for more satisfying their lives as they establish almost half of the worlds population. Sustainable development is possible only when women will associate with the mainstream development process. Womens empowerment can help promote humanity to a great extent. Womens empowerment refers to a pre-condition for their development. However, it has several dimensions, such as social, economic, and political, which can be perceived and attained at individual and collective levels. These dimensions are interrelated, implying the actions promoting one portion strengthen the values of the other portions (Haider and Akhtar, 1999). (Afshar and Barreintos, 1991) purser that globalization influences women in the most assorted aspects of their lives and the remotest expanses of the world. The consequences have been sundry and contradictory, inclusionary, and exclusionary. Globalization is a multi-dimensional manner of economic, political, socio-cultural, and ideological diversity. It has a diverse impact on womens rights.  On one side, globalization has led to increasing infringements of womens rights in extensive measure due to the withering away of the benefit palmist state, the feminization of impoverishment, and the spiritual fundamentalisms, and new forms of militarism and conflict. On the other hand, features of globalization have furnished women with increasing facilities to work to dictate their rights in solidarity at the national, regional, and international levels. (Islam, 2009) pointed out that Bangladesh moved to welcome the wave of globalization in the 1990s, after an uncertain inauguration in the mid-1980s.  In 1975, Bangladesh actively had participated in the first World Women Congress in Mexico. The mainstreaming of the Bangladesh womens progress was a movement that waged outside the country. The terrain of the present level of womens development in Bangladesh formed with this dynamism. The 2nd Women Convention convened in Copenhagen in 1980, the 3rd World Women Convention held in Nairobi (1985), and the 4th World Women Convention in 1994 at Jakarta Declaration. The principal theme of these strategies centered on womens political participation (Chowdhury, 1994). So, the issue of womens empowerment (political) is one of the current and significant issues thoroughly considered in the world trying to strengthen women in the mainstream regarding the decision-making process. Chowdhury, (1994) prepares a sound inspection of the structure and arena of politics and womens political rights. Pointing out the and rocentrism of politics and the requirement for womens participation and partnership in politics, the author associates the causes behind the low rate of womens political participation in all parts of the world. In light of this global view, the author then focuses on Bangladesh and suggests introducing a minimum quota system in the structure and hierarchy of political parties to ensure an equal representation of women in politics. In Bangladesh, where employment and earning opportunities are seriously low and highly involve hard physical work in agriculture and manufacturing, the latter typically requires staying away from home. This division of labor accords with the doctrine of comparative advantage (Hossain et al., 2012). 

Womens participation in the labor force has increased compared to men albeit; women are highly in low-end jobs. Sultana, (2014) uttered that the readymade garment sector continued to be the largest, employing women, albeit mainly as frontline unskilled workers.  Though women work in some new occupations, their engagement in the non-farm sector has not reached the target. 68.84% of women were engaged in the agriculture sector, followed by the services area (21.89%) and the industry sector (13.32%) in 2010. The Labor Force Survey (LFS) 2010 found an increase in female labor force participation from 29.2% in 2005/6 to 36% in 2010. According to ILO report, female labor force participation rate in Bangladesh has increased to 36.3 percent in 2017 from 33.2 percent in 2016 whereas the male participation rate increased slightly to 80.7 percent in 2017 from 79.4 percent in 2016 (Daily Star, 2018). In Bangladesh, the number of operating women is doubled to 18.6 million in 2016-17 from 16.2 million in 2010 (Chaity, 2018). 

Globalization provided new opportunities for women in Bangladesh. The leading industry in Bangladesh is apparel manufacturing and exporting. In this industry, women became the dominant workforce employed. To allow women a position in the working world is a positive succession. This situation could be possible in countries like the US and Europe albeit, in Bangladesh, this is not the case. Agreeing that working women in Bangladesh is a good step would be the failure to recognize that women are being placed into this new labor category because they can easily be controlled and manipulated. 

Bangladesh has made considerable development regarding womens empowerment. Women are actively involved in family planning choices and have achieved a voice in family decision-making because maternal mortality rates and fertility rates have drastically declined. More and more, women are becoming involved in political roles like holding seats in parliament which tends an even greater voice for womens issues. Nevertheless, much work still needs to be consummate. Social and institutional hurdles remain in place to serve as an impediment to the ability of women to reach full empowerment. Inequality in gender is still much a part of this patriarchal society. Women still find it hard to obtain an education, health care, employment, and safety from the threat of violence.

Conceptualizing Women Empowerment

The theory of empowerment coined by Paulo Freire (1921-1997), a Brazilian scholar, championed the concept of the Pedagogy of the Oppressed.  According to Freire, (1972), empowerment is a method by which an oppressed person perceives the structural conditions of his oppression and is subsequently able to take action against his oppressors. Bosherup, (1970) pioneers Womens Role in Economic Development brought greater attention to the importance of womens role in agricultural economies and the shortage of adjustment of development projects with this reality. Tolentino, (2016) notes that empowerment supplicates power while signifying the lack of it. The justification of empowerment looks like an explorer supporting a claim on new territory with a white flag. Empowerment means delegation of power and authority. Women empowerment means delegation of power, authorization, and permission to women to decide matters relating to them. Batliwala, (2007) broadened the concept of women empowerment as a collective process to understand it as an individual process of self-transformation. Rahman, (2013) explains the concept through liberal, structural and cultural perspectives. From a liberal perspective, the womens empowerment strategy suffers from three delusions such as exclusionary bias, adversarial orientation, and subversive logic (Sharma, 2000). From a structural panorama, the issue negotiates women as a homogenous category, an identical mass (Sharma: ibid). From a cultural viewpoint, the strategy can denounce its pronounced western ethnocentrism (Sharma: ibid). Women empowerment is a process to recreate them perfectly what they can be, can do, and realize in a circumstance that they were previously declined, without requiring permission from another source. World Bank (2001) affirms (rights, resources, and voice) of women, a view repeated by Chen, (1992), stresses (resources, attitudes, relationships, and power), while Kabeer (1999) highlights (resources, agency, and achievements) as parameters of women empowerment. Parveen, (2008) discussed womens empowerment regarding economic control and access to resources, power within the household (Mason and Smith, 2003), a process of gaining control (Sen, 1997), and involvement in politics (Inglehart and Norris, 2003). In the early 20th century, Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain commenced the mission of womens empowerment and womens rights in Bangladesh. She tried to display her philosophy for the necessity of womens education and equality which was even a dream to the other women with her writings. What she did to increase womens education.  During that time, there was almost no education among Bangladeshi Muslim women.

Dimensions and Determinants of Women Empowerment

Three dimensions of empowerment sketched by Ka-beer, (1995) explain these as the pathways through which empowerment transpires. The first dimension is resources, which introduces the conditions of choice, meaning one appraises and can choose alternative options or the pre-conditions. The second dimension is an agency, which assigns to a process by which one differentiates between calculated life opportunities and second-order choices and makes choices in either platform. These two dimensions (resources and agency) are considered an encouragement for empowerment, which is often connected to control, awareness, or power. And finally, the third dimension is achievements, which refers to the effect of the choices made. One dimension can attend to changes in the others.  The determinants of women empowerment are:

Economic Empowerment

Economic empowerment is a process to control assets and family resources, ownership of assets, an excuse for employment, and access to markets and representation in economic decision-making roles. With economic empowerment, women can attain financial independence, subscribe to the workforce, and have equal opportunities to gain positions of economic power (UN Women, 2018).

Social and Cultural Empowerment

Socio-cultural factors are enormously established elements of a particular society and circumscribe the values, attitudes, norms, practices, institutions, stratifications, and associated ways of an organization (Khan & Mazhar, 2019).  Social and cultural empowerment consists of truancy of discrimination against females, authority over their bodies, and freedom from sexual and domestic violence, having access to family planning services, larger distinctness in social reservations, and alterations in cultural norms that spot women docile to men (Chatterjee, n.d.)..

Political Empowerment

Political empowerment is a process concerning the prudence of producers to seek claims on such actors and institutions and hold them answerable. Political empowerment is the dimension of smallholders to have an opinion and to exercise control in the organizations, profess to represent them or speak on their behalf, such organizations be producer corporations, NGOs, or the growing assemblage of private and multi-stakeholder standard-setting initiatives, associated with fair and ethical trade and CSR (Utting, 2012).      

The Correlates of the Dimensions of Women Empowerment

The salient dimensions of womens empowerment include self-esteem, mobility, control of resources, and decision-making. Intimate to these dimensions, there are the demographic, economic, and social status of women and womens exposure to media, termed the determinants of womens empowerment. Jejeebhoy, (2000) draws a correspondence between the dimensions and the determinants as in Fig. 1 below.

Fig. 1: Determinants and Dimensions of Womens Empowerment (Source: Adopted from Jejeebhoy in Presser and Sen, 2000).

Globalization : Concept

The word globalization is multidimensional with economic, social, cultural, and political implications. Torres, (2001) designates globalization as a method of swift economic integration among countries propelled by trade liberalization, investment, and capital flows, as well as technological change. Globalization has limited the dissimilarities among different countries and its nation.

Considering the early 16th century, national and regional economies throughout the world have been uniting, and in the twentieth century, some pointers of globalization were very powerful. Newly globalization has performed brilliant momentum in its description and depth. The effectiveness of globalization is the assumption of nation wide economy, hitech modification, and process of production, distribution of sources, institutional changes, and formulation of policies of the different countries of the world. Globalization has tremendous influences on both genders and also on their families. The most observed effect of globalization is the heightened participation of females in the paid labor market more than males (Standing, 1999). Global manners change gender relations and roles and reinforce gender inequalities, but embedded in a gendered reality and gendered philosophies. In different third world countries, men are driving to urban centers in quest of better-paid work; due to their absence, women have subscribed to the agricultural labor force. Under this circumstance, women usually become household heads and primary wage earners

Globalization refers to the outcome of transferring “mediascapes, technoscapes, ethnoscapes, finance scapes, and ideoscapes” (Appadurai, 1996). Cultural homo genization and cultural heterogenization are the advanced problems of todays global interconnection (Appadurai, 1990). The author discusses how the five necessary assembles abolish the unfounded conceptions of distinct economies and “pure capitalism.” These five dimensions of global cultural flow cause a “disordered capitalism.”  And confused capitalism requires the separate, disjointed operations of the “economy, culture, and politics.” Joseph Stiglitz, (2002) designated globalization as the adjacent integration of countries, brought about by the tremendous reduction of costs of transformation and communication, and the collapsing of fabricated barriers to the movements of goods, services, capital, knowledge, ideas, and to a minor extent, people beyond borders. A recent publiccation of the World Bank (World Bank, 2002) identified the three waves of globalization. From 1870 up to 1914, has been identified the first wave of globalization and between 1950 and 1980 witnessed the second wave. And, the third or the latest wave of globalization started in the 1980s, which proceeds to date. 

Dimensions of globalization

Globalization is a multifaceted concept. The broad dimensions of globalization are Economic globalization, Socio-cultural globalization, and Political Globa- lization. These dimensions are oversimplified, and they often obscure interconnections and overlaps between compasses of globalization (Mascia-Lees, 2010). 

Economic globalization: Economic globalization is a process regarding the integration of individual countries organizations of production, distribution, and consumption of commodities into the world economy (Chase- Dunn, 2000). International trade in goods and services, foreign direct investment, and glo financial flows are the three most prime vehicles of economic globalization (Mahler, 2004).

Socio-cultural globalization: Socio-cultural globalization is a process of communicating ideas, significations, and principles surrounding the world to expand social relations. It connects to the illustrative structure, articulation, and dissemination of application.

Political globalization: Political globalization consists of the national governments, related to their governmental and inter-governmental organizations and the government sovereignty components of global civil society such as international non-governmental organizations and social mobility organizations. One of the exceptional examples of political globalization is the cosmos and the continuation of the United Nations.

The Globalization-Women Empowerment Nexus

Womens empowerment is a position to secure that woman can fully possess equal rights as men and are not discriminated against, which is sensibly acceptable. It is also instrumentally estimable because it fosters economic development (Sen, 1999). Comprehensive atheists of globalization suggest the masculinity of corporate globalization commencing to the subjugation of women across the world (Chafetz, 1984; Enloe, 2007; Klein, 2007; Shiva, 2005; Ward, 1984). (Wichterich, 2000) demonstrated that a globalized woman burned up as a natural fuel; she is the sweatshop worker in export industries and the voluntary worker who helps assimilate the collapses of social reduction and structural adjustment. (Baneria, 2003) confirms that globalization is a process of global market enlargement that connects to the market has historically been different for men and women with moments for their decisions, choices, and behavior. The author highly points out the feminist economic literature that confesses impulses other than self-interest in judgments and behaviors of people, including self-sacrifice, considering, and integrity. These are highly associated with women. Katz, (2001) represents a pure topography of globalization, which necessitates a channel for developing a gendered oppositional politics that drive across scale and space. Gibson Graham, (2006) affords an alternative pageant of capitalism and socialist politics.  Feminists defied not a patriarchal authority but a world in which the division of vast areas of practice into the superior male and less sufficient female domains was a matter of general sense, ad-mitted as self-evident by most men and many women. Haussmann and Sauer, (2007) contrast the impact of womens policy agencies and the womens campaign on current pivotal environment policies in fourteen countries from the 1990s to today.  The authors used the Research Network on Gender and the State (RNGS) model of womens movement and policy actor artifices to impact public policy deliberations and state rejoinder. Most of the investigation on the impact of trade liberalization converges on women in wage employment evaluates how their job and benefits are affected through an increase (or decrease) in exports and imports. Standard trade theory declares that comparative advantages of a country in trade based on its part revenues (labor or capital) and consign those commodities that use its approximately plentiful portion most intensively. The Heckscher-Ohlin-Stol-per-Samuelson (HOSS) theorems prognosticate those reactions to the relatively abundant factor used in exports will stimulate the demand for increases (Heck-scher and Ohlin, 1991; Stolper and Samuelson, 1941). As developing countries are over-flowing in labor rather than capital, the liberalized trade expected double the labor (wages). Heterodox theorists support that trade, based on a positive or competitive advantage (Adam Smith, 1776) rather than comparative advantage. That means a country that provides goods more cheaply will control the international market and exceed its competitors. Women are thus suitable as a cause of competitive advantage for export-oriented industries that face intense competition in the global business, and the desire for their labor emanates.  The contrast between competitive advantage and comparative advantage is a country can design a labor-intensive good more efficiently than a capital-intensive good. The export industry could not consign and even have its industry crash through trade if its trading partners produce both goods more economically. Black and Brainerd (2004) affirm that globalization is a method that leads to forwarding pressures that will decrease the expanse for employers to distinguish, including discriminating against women. Female workers in this framework are assumed to be identically skilled/ productive as male workers. As per the heterodox theory, a dog-eat-dog economy accepted continuous discrimination (Darity, 1989; Darity and Williams, 1985). In this approach, the relative bargaining power of workers determines wages, determined by worker skills and job characteristics. Kroliczek, (2016) recommended circumscribing the relationship between globalization types and their ability to support gender equality. The author used the KOF Globalization Index and the Global Gender Gap Index (GGG Index) to examine the relationship between three dimensions (sub-indexes) of the KOF Index (economic globalization, social globalization, and political globalization) and gender equality. The author also used the SIGI Index 2012 (OECD) to estimate the meaningful or irrelevant relationship between socio-cultural globalization (KOF Index) and the outcome achieved under social globalization type on gendered social contracts (SIGI Index). Empirical studies of the impact of globalization on women also conduct out inconsistent findings (Horgan, 2001). Although globalization cuts women, it has also produced a substantial opportunity for women. Women are responsible for the first time to be financially independent of men and to have at least some security in their personal lives. Essentially, by creating opportunities for women into the workforce, globalization has given women the power to end the system that spawns poverty, exploitation, and oppression. Butale, (1997) tended out that over the past two decades, the process of globalization has committed to widening inequality within and among countries, combined with the economic and social fall down in parts of Sub-Saharan Africa and countries in transformation like in Eastern Europe. Women are getting utilized by Transnational Corporations with the conspiracy of their governments which reflects economic inequalities. Foreign direct investment, export/GDP ratio, and trade openness determine the consequences of economic globalization on womens economic empowerment in Bangladesh. Rahman, (2014) design-nates the association between the gender gap and trade liberalization in Bangladesh with a pivotal significance on the ready-made garments for consolidating the highest number of female workers, has 77.12 percent portion in overall trading results and has a 14 percent share in GDP. The research observed that free trade increased female participation in the export sector by five times, but the discrimination against females is still high in the work environment. Conversely, the income gap between females and males is feeble due to the longer work relays of males, female workers requiring skills and education, skepticism, and ill manner of employees towards inclinations of females. The overall impact on womens welfare is a contro-versial issue (Khundker, 2002). The author assumes the Bangladesh dimension of the interface of globalization and women.  The researcher used several social and economic variables to look at the impact of globalization on women in Bangladesh through a pre and post analysis. (Barkat and Maksud, 2001) pointed out that womens contribution to family, society, and national development, is a struggle to recognize and parse the factors associated with the possible impact of globalization on Bangladeshi women. Globalization inaugurates new opportunities worldwide.  It designs lifestyles, consumption patterns, consumerist values, communication patterns, styles of urbanization, and cultural customs. Jahan, (2014) studied the impact of globalization on women in Bangladesh from economic, social, and cultural viewpoints. The author shows that how a woman is affected by globalization depends on converging factors such as class, race, ability, age, and education. For example, the upperclass women in Bangladesh have significantly profited through better education, new technologies, better employment, and increased purchasing power. The revolt of NGOs commenced the global centralization and financial liberalization as micro funders (Karim, 2011). The authority of the market and removal of the state transformed economic structures, with the ultimate result that development funding constructs through institutional financial investors. Microcredit itself converted into a formal discussion as the means for individual entrepreneurs to break out of poverty. The interconnection between NGOs and certified investors concentrates on womens manifest empowerment and throws back a neoliberal interpretation. The adjustment of the planning conversation of globalism into a developmental matter has made the natural process of development an on-the-move activity, a social program, and a war on poverty administered on a global scale through microfinance. Bacchus, (2005) discusses the insufficiency of emergency tariffs that allow corporations to take advantage of female workers. Women also go through to work in dangerous conditions that can cause health problems alongside low wages. The effects of globalization and free trade on women in Bangladesh have made the audience understand the film The Hidden Face of Globalization, (2003). Young women workers who work long, tedious hours to support their families face several health problems and dissipate productivity. Sometimes the workers who work in textile industries are disclosed to dust, and fluff can cause lung disease.

Women Empowerment In Bangladesh: Generic Observations

This section implements generic observation about womens empowerment in Bangladesh as evidenced by the developments in various indicators about womens participation and supplement associated with men. Indicators incorporate political, social, economic, and cultural dimensions of womens empowerment as well as womens holding decision-making areas. Under the Two-Year (1978-1980) Plan organized the first program and same as in the 3rd 5 Year Plan (1985-90), expanding the employment and occupation of the women.  

The Bangladesh Government Initiatives for Women Empowerment

Bangladesh has been attempting several policies and programs to mitigate the position of women in society. To accomplish the policy; and engage the commitments of the Beijing Platform for Action, a National Action Plan had approved in 1998.  Womens Development policy had corrected in 2004, and 2008 respectively. The present government has expressed the National Women Development Policy 2011 to execute electoral promises and secure womens development and empowerment.

National Women Development Policy 2011 for Women Empowerment in Bangladesh 

Women empowerment is a progressive concept. Development is related to socio-economic concerns as gender equality and womens empowerment, recognized by specialists. Subsequently, the government has adopted and sanctioned womens development policies at different times to practice gender equality and women empowerment and accomplished remarkable progress with a short time. Achievement of the National Women Development Policy 2011 is the triumphant result of the Bangladesh government in womens wellbeing. The progress executed in terms of the policy as well as consequences can point out as follows:

Gender-Responsive Budgets

The Government of Bangladesh expressed a gender-responsive budget for securing the participation of women in various programs since 2009.  Allocation for womens development is Tk. 7,908.7 million that is 26.80 percent of the total budget in fiscal year (2018-2019).

Ensuring Political Participation of Women

In Bangladesh, womens progress in the political platorm is meaningful as women maintain the top posi-tions in political leadership. At the highest decision-making level, a conspicuous number of women ministers in the cabinet are like the Honorable Prime Minister of the state. In the 10th National Election, 48 women were instantly elected as members of parliament that added to the reserved, constituted 28% of the total seats.

Ensuring Administrative Empowerment of Women

The number of women who work as among the Jus-tices of the Supreme Court, top positions of the administration – secretaries, additional secretaries, joint secretaries, deputy commissioners, and the top places of police, defense forces, and UN pacifier-specifies the development in womens empowerment. 

Ensuring Economic Participation of Women

There is an expanding trend of increased womens participation in the labor force. Bangladesh enhanced its womens labor force from 24% in 2010 to 36% in 2013.  A micro-level study transferred in 2008 reveals that 88% of women are getting occupied in agriculture-related works (GoB, Ministry of Women and Children Affairs, 2011. Four million women get manipulated in the garment sector (GoB, Ministry of Labor and Manpower, 2010).

Skill Training for Women Development

Continuing projects and programs designed for women entrepreneurs training on different trades.  A fund organized by the revenue budget for the social, economic, and political empowerment of women. 

Education of Women

The performance of gender priority is successful in primary education. Primary school enrollment had progressed 1.4 times from 11.9 million in 1990 to 16.7 in 2008 since 1990. Secondary education enrollment for female students had increased significantly as girls (52%) had transcended boys (48%) in 2000. Primary and secondary education is free of cost for girls. Government provisioned stipends and waivers of tuition fees to increase primary and secondary enrollment for girls.

Health of Women

Bangladesh achieved audible progress in the area of womens health. The government executed several actions to deliver primary health care services to rural poor women in community clinics. Besides, the government paid more attention to expediting maternal healthcare resulting in a diminished maternal mortality rate. The Bangladesh government established ten women-friendly Model District Hospitals and Upazilla (sub-district) Health Complexes to treat women and children.

Poverty Alleviation and Social Security of Women

The VGD (Vulnerable Group Development) is one of the most consequential social safety net programs of the Bangladesh Government. The government distributed 30 kg of rice each month among ten Lac poor women to surmount prevailing food insecurity, malnourishment, financial insecurity, and social degradation under the sunshade of VGD.

Social Empowerment of Women

Social security strengthens the social empowerment of women.  Formal and informal education and practical activities enhanced womens confidence, knowledge, learning, creativity, and change management content. Changing social norms and practices and ensuring womens social empowerment promotes womens alliance for voice, agency, and passage to justice.

Legal Empowerment of Women

To restrict certain forms of violence against women, Bangladesh has several specific laws such as the Penal code 1960A; Anti-Dowry Act 1980; A Prevention of Repression Against Women and Children Act -2000 (revised in 2003), Acid Crime Control Act, etc. Albeit extraordinary constitutional services and legal laws have guaranteed womens equal rights, due to some prejudicial personal laws, political history, patriarchal socio-economic system, Bangladesh could not proceed to the expected direction and emulate to realize gender equality (Aminuzzaman, 2018). The Women Development Implementation and Monitoring Committee (WDIMC) sometimes judged the progress to execute the National Action Plan for Women Advancement (NAP), but official journalism did not work. 

Limitations of the Policy

  1. The policy did not amend for a long time;
  2. The policy cannot prevent abuse against women;
  3. The budget of this policy is finite;
  4. The penal codes law did not impose appropriately;
  5. Discrimination against women did not stop yet; 
  6. There is no official system of making a follow-up of the noticeable policy. 

Recommendation for the policy

  1. The law should impose strictly;
  2. A positive domain for women in politics should create;
  3. Provisions for women entrepreneurship should provide;
  4. The budget regarding womens development should increase, and the allocation should be fair.

The government should lessen the disparity in the education system. An effective education policy should adopt. Aminuzzaman, (2018) considered that Bangladesh is an applicant to many international conventions and etiquettes to eliminate womens rights and therefore is devoted to reinforcing such values and provisions. CEDAW (Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women) (1984), Implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action (PFA) (1995), ILO (International Labor Organization) Convention (1935,1948,1951,1958), UN Convention, (1953,1966,1979), and The SAARC Dhaka Declaration (2005), etc. are some of the conventions.  The consequence of empowering women is to take part equally in all settlements to employ them and assure their participation at decision-making levels. To secure the proper implementation of the pronounced public policies, the government of Bangladesh should immediately acquire a Policy Implementation Tracking mechanism.

METHODOLOGY

To illustrate the impact of globalization on womens empowerment in Bangladesh, we first demonstrate a qualitative analysis. Globalization has a diverse effect on the lives of women in developing nations (Markovic, 2007). Globalization presents women with a sharp future (Momsen, 2004). New technology and the internet have boosted globalization, and it would help enhance skill development for women. Globalization spreads confidence and power to earn more money to strengthen their families. In Bangladesh, the advantages of globalization contribute to women are political, social than economic. With global interaction, women can consider everything to handle domestic violence and how to commence small businesses. The mixed effects of globalization in Bangladesh are as follows:

1. Economically, globalization has heightened employment opportunities for women but admitted differentiation in favor of male workers, persecution of women in unpaid or informal labor, ill treatment of women in low–wage piece-rate workers, and poverty through the usual sources of income.

 2. Politically, womens social integration through the globalization process has managed to the potential for new forms of participation and empowerment. Womens greater participation in political and social development has bettered their awareness and permitted those to feel honored as development activists. At the same time, women are also concerned about expulsion from the domestic political process and loss of control to global constraints.

 3. Socio-culturally, globalization is reconstructing the familiar organizational structures of society, although there is shorter agreement on what these changes entail. The extreme absorption of the mass media, the film industry, and publishing into the hands of a few corporations and individuals is leading to homogenous global mass culture. Globalization influences different groups of women in separate ways to create new properties for the execution of women and supports womens groups congregate. Women are used the wrong way in international marketing of sex trafficking, tourist enjoyment, and other unethical exercises. Interpreting the effect of globalization on womens empowerment in Bangladesh, this study uses a quantitative approach by investigating the correlation between selected indices of women empowerment and selected indices of globalization.

Choice of Globalization and Women Empowerment Indices 

For two reasons, the study chooses the KOF index from among the various globalization indexes to represent globalization. First, the KOF index is a comprehensive measure of the rate of globalization. The KOF index has three dimensions of indicators: economic, social, and political. The KOF index of globalization evaluates the current financial flows, constraints, and data on information flows, data on personal contact, and data on cultural proximity. Secondly, the KOF index data for Bangladesh has been available consistently since 2007, while data on other globalization indices are rarely convenient. The Global Gender Gap Index apprehended womens empowerment. This index is intended to capture womens disadvantage associated with men and is not just a measure of equality of the gender gap. The GGG index has four sub-indexes (economic participation and opportunity, educational attainment, health and survival, and political empowerment). To measure the correlation between globalization and gender equality, it is the only way by the KOF index and the GGG index. The SIGI index is the best index to measure social contracts, which is also compatible with the methodology of the KOF index. We, therefore, use both the GGG index and the SIGI index for empirical analysis. The GGG Index estimates the scale from 0-1 (inequality-equality), while the KOF Index gives an estimate of the scale from 0 -100 (least globalized-most globalized). SIGI Index measures 0 for social contracts positive support for gender equality and 1 for negative support for gender equality. In Bangladesh, data are ready for the GGG index (2006-2017) but the SIGI index only (2009, 2012, and 2014). The Global Gender Gap Index aims to identify progress on relative gaps between women and men in health, education, economy, and politics in the world, over the past 11 years. From 2006 to 2017, progress is apparent for Bangladesh, and it is the chief among the South Asian countries. Table 1 and Fig. 2 represent the score of Bangladesh for the period of 2006 to 2017. 

Table 1: Score of Bangladesh in GGG Index from 2006 to 2017 (Source: Global Gender Gap Index 2006-2017).

 

Year

Economic Participation and Opportunity

Educational    Attainment

Health Survival

Political Empowerment

Rank

Score

Rank

Score

Rank

Score

Rank

Score

2006

107

0.423

95

0.868

113

0.950

17

0.267

2007

116

0.437

105

0.871

122

0.950

17

0.267

2008

119

0.444

104

0.909

124

0.950

13

0.310

2009

121

0.455

105

0.911

127

0.950

17

0.294

2010

117

0.473

108

0.914

122

0.956

12

0.338

2011

118

0.493

108

0.917

123

0.956

11

0.359

2012

121

0.480

118

0.858

123

0.956

8

0.380

2013

121

0.495

115

0.884

124

0.955

7

0.403

2014

127

0.4774

111

0.9402

122

0.9663

10

0.4055

2015

130

0.462

109

0.948

95

0.971

8

0.433

2016

135

0.410

114

0.950

93

0.971

7

0.462

2017

129

0.465

111

0.954

125

0.966

7

0.495

Fig. 2: Score of Bangladesh in GGG (Sub-index) (2006-2017).

From the GGG report of Bangladesh, we can say that political empowerment heightens through enlarged membership in the national parliament. But in terms of economic empowerment, improvement is ongoing in expanding the labor force participation of women. With the rate of progress in the education sector, more and more women are subscribing to the labor force, although there is still a long mile to go. In Social empowerment, laws are adequate but, the execution is limited. Effective implementation of CEDAW and other gender related laws to restrict social violence and discrimination against females in social and economic compasses remains the main provocation. 

Table 2: Ranking of Bangladesh in KOF Index and GGG Index (2017) (Source: Author prepared the Table using KOF Index and GGG Index data).

Sub Index

KOF Index

Sub Index

GGG Index

Economic Globalization

153

Economic Participation and Opportunity

129

Social Globalization

187

Educational Attainment

111

Political Globalization

70

Health and Survival

125

 

 

Political Empowerment

7

As shown in Table 2, Bangladesh has a long way to go to be globalized (KOF Index). Bangladesh is moving forward by political globalization but still in a lower position in economic and social circumstances. It is necessary to increase the development sector to enrich its status in the world economy as Bangladesh can compete with the highly globalized countries. To sustain its position in the global economy, womens participation in Bangladesh should increase in all compasses of the development sector (economic, social, and political). In GGG Index, Bangladesh is doing a premium rank in political empowerment but procrastinates in others. Table 3 and Fig 3 represent the clear picture of the score of Bangladesh in KOF Index for the period of (2007-2017).

Table 3: Score of Bangladesh in KOF Index (2007-2017) (Source: KOF Index 2007-2017).

Year

Economic Globalization

Social Globalization

Political Globalization

2007

29.52

18.63

70.59

2008

31.57

17.51

74.79

2009

32.48

19.88

75.07

2010

36.48

19.95

75.94

2011

33.34

19.79

78.27

2012

34.49

21.05

77.42

2013

34.47

20.99

77.16

2014

33.84

24.42

77.46

2015

35.28

24.21

76.68

2016

35.82

23.92

76.42

2017

33.62

21.56

75.89

The Correlations between KOF index and GGG index

The KOF index is a comprehensive measure of globalization while the GGG index is a comprehensive measure of women empowerment. Fig. 4 shows the scatter plot of the two indices for the period 2007 to 2017. The graph shows that there is a positive relationship between the two indices. Indeed, the estimated regression equation shows that an increase in the KOF index by one percentage point leads to a 0.01 percentage point increase in the GGG index and vice versa. The estimated correlation coefficient between the indices is 0.86, which suggests that the two indices are highly positively correlated. The KOF economic globalization subindex is positively correlated with the GGG economic participation sub-index as shown in Fig. 5

Fig. 4: Scatter Plot of KOF Overall Index and GGG Overall Index (2007-2017).

The estimated correlation between the two indices is 0.55. The estimated regression coefficient indicates that an increase in the KOF sub-index by one percentage point leads to an approximately 0.01 percentage point increase in the GGG sub-index and vice versa.

Fig. 5: Scatter Plot of KOF Economic Globalization Sub-Index and GGG Economic Participation and opportunity Sub-Index (2007-2017).

Fig. 6: Scatter Plot of KOF Political Globalization Sub-Index and GGG Political Empowerment Sub-Index (2007-2017).
The KOF political globalization sub-index and the GGG political empowerment sub-index are highly positively correlated, the correlation coefficient is 0.94. The regression coefficient suggests that a one percentage point increase in the former leads to about 0.08 percentage point rise in the latter and vice versa. The two sub-indices are plotted in Fig. 6. As shown in Fig. 7, the scatter plot of the KOF social globalization sub-index and the SIGI empowerment index show that the two indices are highly positively correlated. The correlation coefficient is 0.96. The regression coefficient suggests that a one percentage point increase in the KOF index leads to a 0.03 percentage point increase in the SIGI index and vice versa.
Fig. 7: Scatter Plot of KOF Social Globalization Sub-Index and SIGI Index (selected years).

From the economic outlook, globalization introduces the breakthrough from which everyone advantages. Employment collects in market appliances encourage competition among countries following in a better quality of goods and services prepared for the customer. But as a developing country like Bangladesh is not in a place to secure the interests of the system due to the countrys backwardness and colonial past while the country is becoming the market of goods produced by most developed countries. Data shows that women are accumulating receipts from raising barriers to markets and societies through improved technological skills and therefore shape their lives toward advancement in their occupations. Bangladesh has a positive correlation between the KOF economic globalization vs. GGG economic participation and opportunity with 0.55 (Scatterplot 2). So, Bangladesh has to pay more attention to strengthening womens labor force participation and has to generate more opportunities for women. Bangladesh has the highest correlation recognized on the KOF social globalization vs. the SIGI Index with 0.96 (Scatterplot 4). Women guide to create several little reliabilities -especially in the social realm, but also in the management of daily life and maintenance, in ecology, culture, politics, and civil society in a condition where the general sense of security is misplaced. In Bangladesh, old family bonds are destroying, and nuclear families are progressing. The state and capital are leaving engagements and contests, male brutality, and social stresses are heightening. Traditionally the political process, authority, and leadership have been highly controlled by males. But Bangladesh is exceptional with the highest decision-making level where women as some ministries in the cabinet and the Honorable Prime Minister are women of the state. In Bangladesh, the impact of political globalization on womens empowerment is amazingly high (Scatterplot 3) that indicates the installed great international organizations correlative albeit the international organizations and embassies work have to work on the politic-unbiased ground and direct control on the female contestants.

CONCLUSION

To conclude, globalization has a diverse impact on the entities of women in Bangladesh. From a positive perspective, it strengthens the participation of women in the labor market, womens independent migration to metropolitan areas, and greater visibility of women in public spaces. These changes have, to some extent, helped break the job market segmentation and a narrowing of the wage differentials over time amid men and women. The present challenge is to develop on these positive steps, ensuring that women can effectively participate in an extensive range of economic and social areas on equal terms with men. From the negative aspect, women of Bangladesh operate as sweat-shop workers in trading industries. The workers who live abroad and refuse foreign currency, sensuality workers or description brides, spousal markets, and the spontaneous worker who help fight the excitement of social modification inducted by the structural adjustment. The fundamental essential is to understand under such terms and the variables required determining the effects of globalization on womens stage of life, identity, and state. To diminish the negative impacts on women, need social change, experienced and respectively agreed on action programs among business schools, corporations, and other powers groups like the public sector and crushing the glass ceiling in MNCs, including codes of treatment as a part of their CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility). Besides, for participation in economic and political pursuits broad level of social cooperation and government initiatives are necessary.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Professor Dr. Mohammad Abul Hussain, Department of Economics, University of Chittagong, Bangladesh,  supported this study with proper supervision.

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST

The author certifies that there are no conflicts of interest concerning the research work.                                                      

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Article Info:

Academic Editor

Dr. Doaa Wafik Nada, Associate Professor, School of Business and Economics, Badr University in Cairo (BUC), Cairo, Egypt.

Received

November 21, 2021

Accepted

December 22, 2021

Published

December 29, 2021

Article DOI: 10.34104/cjbis.021.01370153

Corresponding author

Soma Dhar*

PhD Student, Department of Economics, University of Chittagong, Bangladesh.

Cite this article

Dhar S. (2021). Globalization and its impact on womens empowerment in Bangladesh. Can. J. Bus. Inf. Stud., 3(6), 137-153. https://doi.org/10.34104/cjbis.021.01370153

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